English Language Teaching: History, Theories, Methods and Approaches

 

 

English Language Teaching (ELT)

English in India

• Implementing the charter Act of 1813, a General Committee of Public Instruction was set up in Calcutta.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Merole and others established the Hindu College in 1817.
• 1823- the General Committee of Public Instruction was set up.
• 1824- Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote a letter to Viceroy Lord Amberest. Request introduce the English to Indian people then they will refer the British literature.
• 1831- English teaching was first started by the Kings College London University.
• 1834 -Macaulay was invited to preside over the committee.
• 1835- Macaulay minutes:

a) "a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect".

b) “I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was

      worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”.

c) Neither Sanskrit nor Arabic is the language of law, religion.

• Woods Dispatch (1854) which is often described as the Magna Carta of English education in India confirmed the opinion of Macaulay.
• In 1894, Oxford introduced English literature as a subject of study
• Indian education commission (1882) expressed its dissatisfaction at the exclusive use of English as the medium of instruction and education.
• Hunter Commission of 1882 had Suggested different changes to make English education in India.
• Lord Curzon’s Education Policy- 1899- importance to university education- not published.
•  The Indian universities Commission (1902) also raised its voice against the neglect of vernaculars.
• The Calcutta University commission (1917) tried to adjust the claims of both English and vernaculars, by giving them different fields.
• Sadler Commission 1917- appointed to study the problems of Calcutta University, and report to the Government.
• Two Indian members of Sadler commission named Sir Ashutosh Mukharji and Dr.Zia-din-Ahmed.
• Recommended the reforms in college education and established a new teaching and residential University in Dhaka- to provide facilities for Muslim students also.
• The Wardha Scheme of Education - In 1937 (Nai Talim or Basic Shikh or Basic Education)- based on Gandhi’s   philosophy -the present education system is not only wasteful but also harmful, because English created a permanent bar between the highly educated few and the uneducated many. Government should give compulsory education for eight years that is from 6 to 14 years and the medium of introduction must be the mother tongue- after independence it is declared that the primary education was to be free and compulsory as per article 45 of Indian constitution.
• Radhakrishnan Commission / University Education Commission – appointed in 1948 and submitted report in 1949- the teachers should render their duties up to the age of 60 to 64- eighteen hrs-
• Recommended English should be studied in high school and colleges.
• Gandhi’s views: “English is today studied because of its commercial and so called political values. Our boys think and rightly in the present circumstances, that without English they cannot get government services. Girls are taught English as a passport to marriage”.
• C. Rajagopalachari: “English was the gift of goddess Saraswati to India and that in our anger and hatred we should not throw away the baby”.
• Nehru accepted vernacular and tolerated English.
• Indian constitution allowed English to continue as a second language in 1950.
• The Secondary Education Committee (1952-53) led by Dr. Lakshmana Swamy Mudaliar stressed the importance of dynamic methods of teaching all subjects including English.
• 1961- The Conference of Chief Ministers (CABE) approved three language policy.
• Southern states opposed the introduction of Hindi as national language.
• 1963- Parliament accorded the status of associate official language of India.
• Till today English is the link language, administration and justice in many languages.
• The Kothari Commission (1964) – louded three language policy- Hindi and English as link languages- English as a library language and international communication English should be taught as a skill subject.
• The Study Group (1967) led by V. K. Gokak- teaching English through structural approach- English should be introduced before V- preparation of material in controlled structural items-
• In 1968 A National Policy on Education was formulated to implement Kothari Commission- strengthening Hindi as a link language and English as a language of Science and technology. CIEFL
• National Policy on Education (1986)- continued the earlier stands.
• The Acharya Rama Murti Committee (1986) endorsed that the three language formula had ‘stood the test of time’-

 

Theories of Language acquisition

·       Six major learning strategies: cognitive, mnemonic, metacognitive, compensatory, affective and social.

1. Cognitive:               

·       Learners already have many of information. He is always updating this information with new information which he collects from various sources.

·        Cognitive strategy helps learners to make an association with the previous and new knowledge or information.

·       Analysing, guessing, inductive and deductive reasoning, rearranging the information and taking regular notes of the information are examples of cognitive strategies.

2. Mnemonic strategy:

·       It assists learners to connect a newly learned knowledge with what they have already learned and know.

·       These are useful for remembering knowledge in a systematic way in different ways.

·       Mnemonic strategy connects old & newly learned knowledge stimulus-response manner.

3. Metacognitive strategy:

·       They assist learners to manage themselves as learners

·       In knowledge seeking process

·       Choose particular tasks for learning. This strategy will help the learner to focus on his area of interest his needs and the best style of learning.

·       It helps a learner to select the right resource and fix a goal for language learning.

·       If the goals are not clear the learning process will be obstructed.

4. Compensatory Strategies:

·       Guessing the meaning or idea while listening and reading fills a learning gap.

·       Likewise compensatory or communicative strategies assist learners while speaking and writing.

·       Using synonym and gesturing is a strategy for speaking and use of synonym will fill the knowledge gaps while writing.

·       Cohen (1977) thinks that this strategy is suitable for language use only.

·       Little (1999) and Oxford (1990) are of the opinion that this strategy suits both language use and language learning.

5. Affective strategies:

·       A learner can identify his feelings like anger, unhappiness and anxiety and s/he can be aware of such situations which produce such feelings.

·       In language learning process positive attitudes and beliefs can increase the learner’s motivation and will improve his language learning.

6. Social strategies:

·       Social strategies are an integral part of communicative language learning.

·       It help students to know about the culture of the target language speaking people.

·       Rubin (1975) believes in this method.

 

Methods of Teaching English

1. Approach   

2. Design        

3. Procedure

·       An approach describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught; it is more theoretical and forms the basis of any method to be formulated.

·       A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material; no part of the method evolved contradicts the principles of the approach on which it is based; a method is more procedural; within any approach, there can be several methods.

·       A technique represents implementation; it is the actual implementation of a method in the classroom. 

 

 

 

List of Various Methods and Approaches in ELT

1.     Grammar-Translation Method

2.     Direct Method

3.     The Structural-Oral-Situational Approach (The S-O-S Approach)

4.     Reading Approach

5.     Audio-lingual Approach

6.     Oral Approach

7.     Community Language Learning

8.     The Silent Way

9.     The Communicative Approach

10.  Functional Notional Approach

11.  Total Physical Response Approach

12.  The Natural Approach

13.  Suggestopedia

 

1. Grammar-Translation method

·       Medieval scholastic theories produced the grammar-translation method, which was the only teaching method for several centuries.

·       Howatt says that the method used by individual learners to read and understand a book in a foreign language using dictionary, grammar texts, etc was taken to schools to teach a foreign language or languages.

·       In India it was for Persian and Sanskrit and in the west it was for Latin and Greek.

·       Franz Ahn and H.G. Ollendorff are the major successful practitioners of this method.

·       Oldest method. Classical languages like Greek, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic and Latin can be taught.

The principles of Grammar-Translation:

1.     Literary language is superior to spoken language

2.     Primary skills to be improved are reading and writing

3.     The learners memorize all the facts of the language.

4.     Given parsing and transformation exercises.

5.     Focus on accuracy rather than fluency

6.     Prescriptive teaching of Grammar

7.     Give translation of words

8.     The teacher is the authority in the classroom.

 

Merits of GT Method

(i) The method makes extensive use of the student's knowledge of the mother tongue. English was taught with the help of the mother tongue. Words, phrases and sentences were freely translated into the mother tongue. Teachers and students felt at home and comfortable.
(ii) This was the easiest and quickest way to explain words, phrases and sentences of English. It saved time because English was not used for giving meanings. Most of the words were learnt in this way correctly.
(in) In the early stages, their understanding was tested through the mother tongue.
(iv) The method saved time and trouble for the teacher as even an average teacher could follow the method confidently.
(v) The pupils learnt many English words easily by this method

 

Demerits of GT Method

(i) The learners learn the theory of language but they could not use them in everyday life.

(ii) Speech is totally neglected.

(iii) Language learning is basically a kind of habit formation. Language use is not practised here.

(iv) Translation from mother tongue to target language and vise-versa leads to the generation of artificial sentences.

(v) Translated words do not have exact equivalents.

(vi) Teaches English through rules. A language cannot be learned completely by learning rules.

 

2. The Direct Method

·       It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and is best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and de Sauzé, although neither claims originality and it has been re-invented under other names.

·       Natural method.

·      This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.

·         Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. 

·   Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. 

·       The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. 

·       The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative.

·       Questions are answered in the target language. 

·       Grammar is taught inductively–rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language.

·       Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. 

Merits of Direct Method

·       The learner learns L2 as he/she learns the mother tongue.

·       Learns to think and speak in English.

·       Becomes fluent in correct pronunciation.

·       Teachers used audio-visual aids extensively.

·       Emphasizes speech practice and correction takes place at the moment.

Demerits of Direct Method

·       Need more competent teachers to ensure the success of this method.

·       Reading and writing are neglected or postponed to later stage. So, it is not a complete method in itself.

·       Difficult to explain the meaning of all words without mother tongue.

·       Audio-visual aids are not available for all teachers.

·       Slow-learners cannot keep the pace of learning.

·       This method is productive only in small classrooms.

 

 

3. The Structural-Oral-Situational Approach (The S-O-S Approach)

·       Developed mainly by Harold E. Palmer, A. S. Hornby, Michael West, F. G. French, and R. L. Roberts.

·       Based on the conviction that ‘language is primarily speech’ L2 is taught in the same way as the learners picked up their L1.   As one learns the mother tongue, learners first learn by listening, then speaking, then reading and finally writing.

·       SOS believes that Language is a set of habits.  They are also influenced by the operant conditioning theories of BF Skinner. Skinner believed that learning language is a habit formation and more use of a language will reinforce it.

·       ‘The learners learn to manipulate structures to a point of automatic response to a language stimulus (Rivers, 1964:31)’.

·       Frisby (1957) summarises Palmer’s views of language learning process to; first the learner will receive knowledge or resources with knowledge, secondly he will store them into his memory by repeating them and finally he will use them according to the suitability of the situation.

·       SOS approach includes pattern-drilling and memorisation. 

·       Presenting and practicing carefully selected and graded grammatical structures of English in effective and meaningful situations.

·       Language is considered as structural elements for sending meaningful messages. 

 

The principles of the S-O-S method are:

 1. The TL is used the language of the classroom.

2. Language teaching begins with spoken form.

3. New language points introduced and practiced situationally.

4. Items are graded according to their usefulness, frequency and teachability.

5.Reading and writing are introduced after a sufficient basis for lexicon and grammar is established.

6. The following are carefully noted while introducing this approach:

·       Frequency of structural elements in the language of the user

·       Are the classified structures beneficial to acquiring Language

·       The feasibility of the teaching and learning in the classrooms.

·       Which structural elements can be taken together for the purpose of  meeting the students’ needs.

·       A list of frequently used vocabulary from 2000 to 3000 are given to the L2 learners.

Merits

·       Focuses on speaking skills.

·       Emphasizes habit formation.

·       Males the students active in the class.

·       Use of audio visual aids sustains the interest.

·       Discourages the use of mother tongue.

·       Promotes the use of every day English.

·       Helps the learners acquire mastery of structures.

·       Focuses on all language skills.

·       Gives sufficient opportunity for expression.

Demerits

·       Sometimes, it is monotonous and repetitive.

·       More suitable for primary and lower classes.

·       Neglects reading and writing skills.

·       Requires specialized teachers.

·       Restricted to only the selected structures.

·       Not suitable for large classes.

·       More teaching learning aids are required.

 

4.  The Reading Approach         

·       This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies.

·       The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language. 

·       The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.

·       Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. 

·       Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. 

·        Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill.

·   Translation reappears.

 

5. The Audio-lingual Method

·       It is also known as Army Method.

·       Emerged during WW II.

·       This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology.

·        It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach. 

·       Follows the logical learning of LSRW.

·       The combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural oral approach, behaviorist psychology led to this approach.

·       New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. 

·       Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. 

·       Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. 

·       There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. 

·       Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. 

·       There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.

Merits

·       Aural oral skills are developed in a systematic manner.

·       Teaching of vocabulary is done effectively through visual aids.

·       Practical and straight forward for bigger clusters of learning.

Demerits

·       Teacher centric approach.

·       Guided learning is there always.

·       Mostly the learners are passive and they do not have control on their learning.

·       Real learning is not there as it demands pattern practice, drilling, and memorization over functional learning.

·       Language form is preferred to meaning.

·       Equal importance is not given to all the four language skills.

 

6. Oral Approach

·       A method of language teaching which gives primacy to speech.

·       Believes that a foreign language is best learnt through listening and speaking first, before reading and writing.

·       Language is presented orally, practiced through drills and controlled speech, and only later transferred to written form.

·       Follows structural linguistics, behaviourist psychology and natural order of learning.

Important Contributors

·        Harold E. Palmer: Emphasized oral fluency, pattern practice, and graded vocabulary.

·        A. S. Hornby: Applied the Oral Approach in textbooks and grammar teaching.

·        Michael West: Focused on controlled vocabulary and situational presentation.

·        F. G. French: Developed oral-situational teaching techniques.

Merits

·       Develops good pronunciation and fluency.

·       Follows the natural order of language learning.

·       Helps learners think directly in the target language.

·       Grammar is learnt implicitly, making learning more natural.

·       Suitable for beginners and young learners.

·       Encourages active classroom participation.

Demerits

·       Overemphasis on mechanical drills may cause boredom.

·       Little scope for creative or communicative use of language.

·       Reading and writing are delayed excessively.

·       Requires highly trained teachers.

·       Not suitable for advanced learners or exam-oriented contexts.

 

7. Community Language Learning

·       This approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages.

·       Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client.

·       The native instructors of the language are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language counselors.

8. The Silent Way

·       This method created by Caleb Gattegno begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands.

·       Avoid the use of the vernacular. 

·       Creates simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher.

·       Passes on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. 

 

9.  The Communicative Approach

·        Communicative competence is the progressive acquisition of the ability to use a language to achieve one's communicative purpose.

·        Communicative competence involves the negotiation of meaning between meaning between two or more persons sharing the same symbolic system.

·        The classroom is devoted primarily to activities that foster acquisition of L2.  Learning activities involving practice and drill are assigned as homework. 

·        The instructor does not correct speech errors directly.

·        Students are allowed to respond in the target language, their native language, or a mixture of the two.

·        The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of a message that the acquirer understands and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful communication.

 

10. Functional-Notional Approach

·       This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach.

·       The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus.

·       The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.

·       Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs.

 

11. Total Physical Response

·       James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system.

·       This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation.

·       The basic tenets are: Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. 

·       Here, the student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.

 

12. The Natural Approach

·       The Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach share a common theoretical and philosophical base.

·       The Natural Approach to L2 teaching is based on the following hypotheses:

1. Adults can "get" a second language much as they learn their first language, through informal, implicit, subconscious learning.  The conscious, explicit, formal linguistic knowledge of a language is a different, and often  non-essential process.

2. L2 learners acquire forms in a predictable order.  This order very closely parallels the acquisition of grammatical and syntactic structures in the first language.

3. Fluency in L2 comes from the acquisition process. 

4. Language is acquired through comprehensible input. 

5. People with certain personalities and certain motivations perform better in L2 acquisition.